Structural Model of Community Participation in Rural Development in Jambi Province, Indonesia

Kuswanto Kuswanto; Irzal Anderson

doi:10.3897/popecon.7.e97189

Abstract

This study aims to examine the level of community participation and its enabling factors. The study covered 277 rural communities selected by the area sampling technique, at the district, sub-district, and village levels. The data were analyzed using the SEM-PLS method. The analysis results show that the level of community participation in Jambi Province in village development is influenced by internal community factors, such as socio-economic status and community culture, while community external factors, such as the role of mass media, village head leadership and public services hardly have any significant effect. Community culture variables mediate social media variables and socioeconomic status in determining community participation. Therefore, it is suggested that the government optimize the role of mass media as a medium of information, education and services to strengthen culture. The government must also provide feedback on the community participation in the development in the form of public facilities, economic stability, security and ease of access to education so that it will make it easier for the community to improve their socio-economic status, which in turn will create a good culture of social life. It is necessary to disseminate information within the community about various forms of services to the population that are easily accessible so that the community can feel their role and enjoy benefits of these services.

Keywords

Structural Model, Community participation, Rural Development

JEL codes: B55, D9, F63

Introduction

The benchmark for successful development is improvement in the quality of human life. While indicators of the development itself are largely determined by the quality of human life. Thus, development and humans cannot be separated; on the one hand, humans function as subjects of the development and on the other hand become objects of the development. Based on this concept, it is emphasized that the development success or failure depend on the level of community participation in it. According to Aref et al. (2010) if the community does not participate in the development, then there is no cooperation between the government and the community so there will certainly be no development. Community support for the development will optimize implementation of the planned development programs (Woods & McDonagh 2012). According to Chifamba (2013), rural development growth will be difficult to achieve in a sustainable manner if there is no community initiative to participate in the development. Therefore, a higher community participation in development will further increase its capacity to support the development success. According to Razzaq et al. (2011), the development success lies in increasing community capacity which indicates an increase in community participation, community knowledge and skills, community leadership, structure and sense of community communication and external partnerships. Community capacity building is a very important aspect of the development that must be pursued by the government so that the development projects can be ensured to provide benefits to people’s lives. According to Azmi et al. (2021) these efforts will increase participation of the community, companies and academics in a professional manner. Community participation in the development can be in the form of donation of funds, material goods, energy, and thoughts (Uceng et al. 2019).

The success of development in an area is also largely determined by the demographic and social economic factors that developed in the area. Jambi Province is one of the provinces in Indonesia which has a population of 3,604,200 or 1.34 percent of the total population of Indonesia. Jambi Province has 2 municipalities and 9 regencies, 141 sub-districts, 163 Urban Village, and 1,399 Villages. Jambi Province community per capita income is USD 3763.89 under a national per capita income of USD 386.36. The poverty rate in Jambi Province is generally centered in the city reaching 10.48 percent above the national poverty rate of 7.53 percent. Most of the people of Jambi Province work: 37.40 percent as laborers and 20.93 percent work alone as farmers and traders, while the rest work freely in the non-agricultural sector. Geographically, the area of Jambi Province is presented below (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Map of Jambi Province. Source: Mapsofworld 2023. https://www.mapsofworld.com/indonesia/provinces/jambi.html

One of the measures used to determine the level of rural development in Indonesia is the Village Development Index (VDI). A higher VDI in an area indicates a higher level of the development, and a low VDI indicates an increasingly lagging behind one. This index indirectly reflects the level of community participation in village development (Direktorat Jenderal 2021). Jambi Province is one of the regions that have an VDI in the developing category, which is 0.69. In almost all districts the VDI is below 0.71 and there is only 1 district that is classified as independent, namely Sungai Penuh City and classified as advanced Batanghari Regency (Direktorat Jenderal 2021). This situation illustrates that the development carried out by the Jambi provincial government has not been maximized and shows a low level of community participation.

According to Njunwa (2010), the ineffectiveness of community participation in the development is caused by several factors, including poverty levels, low knowledge, political involvement, poor community performance, public distrust in the government, misuse and lack of budget transparency. Chifamba (2013) in his research revealed, that in addition to the poverty factor that prevents the community from participating in the development, there is concern about consequences of such participation, namely incurring costs, donating time and energy and resources they have got. Poor people think that their income does not match the payments that are associated with their participation in a new program offered by the village government (Bhattacharyya 2013). Sakata & Prideaux (2013) more specifically emphasize that community participation will not function in the development if it is only used as a hegemonic device in securing compliance and control by the existing rulers.

Various previous studies have revealed several factors that influence community participation in village development, for instance, a research conducted by Sukharwadi (2020) which states that individual, cultural and communication characteristics simultaneously affect community participation in village development in Batulicin District, Tanah Bumbu Regency. Lumantow et al. (2017) specifically examined the Mapalus culture in Tombasian Atas Village, Kawangkoan Barat District, Minahasa Regency, which has a strong influence on community participation in the development. Research conducted by (Rianto 2017; Putra 2018) reveals that the level of education and community perceptions of their participation in village development have a significant influence. Research conducted by Rati et al. (2017) states that the leadership of the village head greatly determines community participation in the development.

These various studies examine the effect of independent variables on community participation in the development partially or simultaneously on several variables, so the results fail to describe a more comprehensive pattern of the relations. In this study, various independent variables were examined for their relationship based on the theory in the form of a structural model to produce a more comprehensive relationship pattern. The data were analyzed using the Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). This technique has not been widely used by researchers in producing studies on community participation in village development.

The study on community participation in the development in Jambi Province is very important because the development level of this province has not been maximized compared to other regions. Demographic and social-economic factors that are thought to be the cause need to be studied more deeply to produce a structural model that is very useful in formulating policies to increase the level of community participation in the development. Studies conducted by (Hakim 2017; Akbar et al. 2018; Mustanir et al. 2018; Uceng et al. 2019; Razzaq et al. 2011) lead to the same conclusion, that is, good demographic and socioeconomic conditions of the community are good will further increase readiness to participate in village development.

This study aims to examine various factors that influence community participation in village development both directly and indirectly to produce a structural model as the basis for policy formulation aimed at increasing the level of community participation in village development in Jambi Province.

Literature Review

Community Participation in the Development

Community participation describes an attitude that has the power to make changes in the creation and management of the community’s own living environment (Sanoff 2005). According to him, the strength lies in the movement that crosses professional boundaries of tradition and culture. Participation will be effective if the role of the community is adjusted to the development needs. In addition, according to Chifamba (2013), it will increase efficiency, independence and the scope and sustainability of the development projects. Community participation at the national level will be effective in realizing the ideals of democracy if the community has been prepared to participate at the local level because at that level the community learns to independently manage the development. When people participate in the development, they will be involved in making decisions that will affect their lives, therefore, each individual must have the opportunity to participate in the development (Heywood et al. 2004). Community involvement in the development is a mechanism to empower their potential so that their capacity as citizens will experience an increase (Razzaq et al. 2011).

Giampiccoli (2010) assesses participation as a process of community involvement in their capacity as citizens to comply with government regulations and work mechanisms. Community participation in the development is seen as merely an attempt to cover up the advancement of hegemonic ideology so that it becomes an approach for each community to promote its own vision of the development. The most important thing, according to him, is that the process must promote real community empowerment. In another article, Giampiccoli & Saayman (2018) explain citizen participation as a redistribution of power involving poor citizens in the development process so that social reform occurs in the midst of people’s lives. Therefore, according to Chifamba (2013) community participation is a government process of influencing and controlling rural development initiatives and decisions to allocate community resources. Through community participation, various physical, economic and social resources will be utilized efficiently, effectively and reasonably to achieve goals and objectives of the development programs that have been set (Burns & Taylor 2000).

Njunwa (2010) emphasized that community participation must be done voluntarily so that a learning process occurs and raises awareness of the importance of participation in the development as a means to realize prosperity. Communities must be actively involved in the process of planning, implementing, monitoring, evaluating and maintaining development projects. With active community participation in the development, it will increase service accountability and democracy, increase social cohesion, increase effectiveness, add economic value, and policy relevance, and have the potential to develop skills and networks to overcome social exclusion and promote sustainable development (Heywood et al. 2004).

Indicators of Community Participation in the Development

Each community has a different level of participation in the development, from the lowest to the highest. The level of community participation is determined based on the indicators that form it. Arfianto & Balahmar (2014) formulate the indicators of community participation in the development in the form of activities, namely (1) Participation in decision-making including the use of local resources and budget allocations which are always determined by the central government; (2) Participation in program implementation activities that are carried out voluntarily by donating their energy to the development activities; (3) Participation in monitoring and assessing activities and evaluating development programs that are very much needed; (4) Participation in utilizing results of the development and obtaining the equitable distribution of the development and improvement of quality of life. Mustanir et al. (2018) detail community participation in the development into 4 forms, namely (1) Participation in the form of money which will later be used for the development and is paid by the community in the form of tax payments; (2) Participation in the form of materials or goods which usually take the form of tools or equipment that can be used to meet the needs of the community; (3) Participation in the form of energy that can be provided by the community to ensure success of the program; (4) Participation in the form of ideas as contributions of thoughts, opinions, ideas, constructive ideas, or social participation such as social gathering for death. Meanwhile, Suryati (2015) measures community participation in the development pm the basis of their attitude in terms of (1) Community’s self-readiness to be involved in the process and determining directions of the development; (2) A sense of responsibility to bear the burden of the development, especially financing; (3) Community participation in enjoying the development results in the sense that the community receives every benefit from the development results and remains aware of the uneven level of the development.

Factors Affecting Community Participation in the Development

People want to participate in the development and their willingness is influenced by various factors. According to Gedeona (2015), people want to participate in the development because of the internal factors, namely gender, age, education, occupation, and income, while the external factors consist of the government efforts in providing information to the public and the role of the private sector. Mustanir et al. (2018) mention several factors that influence community participation in the development, namely knowledge, attitudes, gender, age, values/beliefs, marital status and symbols contained in society. In addition, according to Paul (1987), there are 3 important aspects related to community participation and development, namely (1) economic aspects that can be seen from the level of welfare and majority of jobs; (2) a socio-cultural aspect shown by the socio-cultural differences that develop in the community; (3) a geographical aspect of the area, expressed in the distance from the village to the city Centre.

Role of Social Media in the Development

Social media has an important role in the development. Social media is a page/application that allows users to create and share social networks (Priyatna et al. 2020). In line with Sobaih et al. (2016) social media is an easy-to-use internet-based platform that allows users to create and share content in various contexts to wider audiences. Social media serves as an introduction to one’s actions and interactions with other individuals in their contribution to various community activities (Khan et al. 2014). According to Hendra (2019), social media has a role in people’s lives as a medium to grow smart, open-minded and advanced, convey various kinds of information to the public, become a cultural institution, and can inform development activities. Furthermore, Sobaih et al. (2016) state that the benefits of social media are not only felt by individuals as a means of learning, self-development, and creativity, digital communication, entertainment, and employment but social media can also benefit organizations as a medium of digital communication, media for marketing a product/service, and service media.

Community Work Culture

Culture that develops in people’s lives gives its own style to the level of participation in the development. In meeting their daily needs, humans will take consistent and regular actions to bring up values and habits that become standards of behavior and are accepted as work. Work culture contains several values that can assist in the development implementation (Newstrom 2015). Furthermore, Pattipawae (2011) explains that work culture is reflected in attitudes that change into behavior, ideals and actions as work. In other words, work culture is a view of life that contains values that become the nature, habits and driving force, entrenched in the life of a community group or organization. There is a set of basic assumptions and beliefs that are used by community members in overcoming various problems of internal integration and external adaptation which are then developed and passed on in social life (Joushan et al. 2015). According to Mayangsari (2014), a person’s work culture will be seen in attitudes and behavior at work. A person’s attitude towards work is shown by his acceptance of the leadership’s instructions, happiness to accept work responsibilities, work as worship, carrying out work according to duties, ability to overcome work constraints and being able to compile work reports. Behavior is seen as a level of discipline at work, honesty at work, commitment to work, responsibility for work and cooperation with colleagues.

Socio-Economic Status of Society

Socio-economic status of the community describes the condition of the community both socially and economically. Socio-economic status of the community can illustrate its capacity for the development. People who have higher education will be more responsive to development programs. Education is needed by every individual to know the science and determine potential quality and welfare in the future. Education can also influence a person’s social behavior patterns. Through education, there will be a systematic transformation of knowledge from one person to another so that changes in behavior occur leading to a level of maturity in both thinking and personality (Aspiyah & Martono 2016). According to Muntazeri & Indrayanto (2018) through education efforts can be taken to provide formal and non-formal/informal programmed learning experiences both at school and outside of school for a lifetime to optimize the individual potential for success in life in the future. Thus, according to Salwa et al. (2019), educated people will be critical in thinking.

The level of poverty that occurs in the midst of the community life is a dilemma in the development. On the one hand, the development failure will have an impact on the development and on the other hand poverty will affect the development activities. Poverty is identical to the individual’s inability to meet the minimum basic needs to live a much more decent life (Haryono et al. 2020). According to Duffy et al. (2016), poverty is the inability to buy basic necessities such as food, clothing, shelter, and medicine. The same thing is also explained by Septiadi & Nursan (2020) – poor people do not have the ability to master or adapt to the system, causing that person to become defeated and oppressed by another system that is more dominant. According to them, poverty is indicated by (1) not being able to perform worship based on his/her religion; (2) not meeting the needs twice a day; (3) the clothes used at home, travelling and school/work have similarities; (4) the shape of the ground floor of the house; (5) do not have access to treatment. Meanwhile, Diyanayati & Padmiati (2017) measure poverty based on the level of family income equivalent to the value of the price of rice, namely (1) Very poor: village population – equivalent to 200 kg of rice, urban population – equivalent to 250 kg of rice per year; (2) Poor: village residents – equivalent to 240 kg to 320 kg of rice, residents of Stara city – 360 to 480 kg; (3) Almost enough: villagers – equivalent to 320 kg – 480 kg of rice, urban residents – over 720 kg; (4) Enough: village population – more than 480 kg of rice, urban population – over 720 kg of rice per year.

Public service

Public services are government reparations to provide convenience for the community in terms of administration as well as goods and services. Government services perceived by the community will motivate them to participate in the development. According to Osborne et al. (2016), a public service describes the form of service to the community in meeting needs in accordance with the interests of the organization which is regulated by laws and regulations. Meanwhile, according to Osborne et al. (2013), a public service is a form of government responsibility to meet the basic needs of the community and provide administrative services provided by the government. Yunaningsih et al. (2021) measure the success of public services using indicators, such as Efficiency, Effectiveness, Fairness and Responsiveness. Ostrom & Ostrom (2019) divide public services into various dimensions, namely (1) Accuracy of public services; (2) Service accuracy; (3) Courtesy and friendliness; (4) Responsibilities; (5) Completeness; (6) Ease of getting services; (7) Variation of service model; (8) Personal service; (9) Convenience in obtaining services; (10) Other service support attributes.

Village Government Leadership

The leadership of the village head determines direction of the development through the policies he makes. The leadership type shown by the village head can affect community participation in village development. Authoritarian leaders usually tend to inhibit people’s creativity in the development. In addition, the leading figure of the village head has a very important meaning in people’s lives because it is considered a role model and references in acting as a form of paternalistic culture that is still developing a lot in the life of the Indonesian people (Marayasa 2018). A leader is someone who has leadership traits, namely trying to influence others through motivation and guidance to achieve common goals (Savitri et al. 2020). According to Ari et al. (2022), leadership is an action taken by someone to coordinate and direct members of an organization to achieve goals. Meanwhile, Sasqia (2022) argue that leadership is a way for someone to become a leader who tries to influence his subordinates to work together in order to achieve organizational goals. Jiang et al. (2012) state that in situational leadership there are four behavioral models, namely (1) Informing; together the leaders give specific instructions and provide work execution; (2) Exploring; explaining decisions to subordinates and providing opportunities to understand them; (3) Including; exchanging ideas with subordinates and not making it difficult to make a decision; (4) Delegating; delegate decision-making responsibilities.

Research Method

To analyze community participation in village development and factors that influence it, this research was designed quantitatively. To obtain data on these variables, a survey of people sampled based on the focuses of this research was conducted. To determine the magnitude of the effect of each exogenous variable on the endogenous variables we used SEM (Structural Equation Model) in the form of PLS (Partial Least Square). The research was conducted from April to June 2022 in Bungo, Tanjung Jabung Barar and Tanjung Jabung Timur districts, Jambi Province. The variables in this study consisted of exogenous variables, namely community participation in village development and endogenous variables consisting of socioeconomic status, the role of social media, culture, public services and leadership.

The study population included villagers in Jambi Province with a breakdown on district and city levels. Because the populated area is very vast, we have sampled areas. The district sampling is based on the characteristic similarity of the region and the level of economic growth as a reflection of the level of community participation in the development, and is represented in the Table 1.

Table 1.

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Research Population

No	District/city	Population (thousand)*	LPE*	CPI**
1	Kerinci	250.3	3.69	0.64
2	Merangin	354.1	0.78	0.69
3	Sarolangun	290.1	-0.26	0.67
4	Batang Hari	301.7	-0.27	0.74
5	Muaro Jambi	402	0.27	0.70
6	Tanjung Jabung Timur	229.8	-3.87	0.64
7	Tanjung Jabung Barat	317.5	-0.64	0.67
8	Tebo	337.7	-0.04	0.70
9	Bungo	362.4	-0.4	0.69
10	Kota Jambi	606.2	-3.28	-
11	Kota Sungai Penuh	96.6	-0.14	0.84
	Average	322.58	-0.38	0.70

Based on the data in Table 1, the regencies taken as research samples include the following ones: Bungo Regency, Tanjung Jabung Barat, and Tanjung Jabung Timur (see the map in Figure 1). The number of community samples is calculated based on the following formula:

$n = \frac{N}{1 + N e^{2}}$

Where n is the number of samples; N is the number of populations; E is a tolerated margin of error. Based on this technique and using an error margin of 6 percent, the number of farmer samples adds up to 277 people taken proportionally from each district, as seen in the Table 2.

To obtain data on the variable studied, we used a a questionnaire with a Likert scale consisting of 4 levels, namely: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree. The SEM-PLS model is used to analyze the relationship between variables and their indicators and between variables in the model. Selection of the SEM-PLS model is based on the level of effectiveness in analyzing data that has formative constructs. In addition, according to Chin (1998), it does not require the data to be normally distributed and the model does not have to meet the goodness of fit requirements. The data are processed with the help of SmartPLS software version 3.2.8.

The first step in the SEM-PLS model is to determine the relationship between the first order construct with indicators on each variable and with the second order construct. The basis used to assess the resulting model relied on the criteria developed by Chin (1998) and various opinions of previous researchers such as (Richter et al. 2016; Henseler et al. 2012).

Table 2.

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Research Samples

No	Regency	Subdistrict	Total population	Sample
1	Tanjung Jabung Timur	Nipah Panjang	26,503	33
		Rantau Rasau	24,780	31
		Sadu	13,401	17
2	Tanjung Jabung Barat	Tungkal Ilir	72,795	90
		Pengabuan	25,514	32
		Betara	3,563	4
3	Bungo	Tanah Sepenggal Lintas	23,401	29
		Tanah Sepenggal	23,293	29
		Rantau Pandan	10,324	13
	Total		223,574	277

Results and Discussion

Evaluation of the Measurement Model (Outer Model)

The SEM-PLS model has a formative construct that describes the relationship between variables and their constituent indicators. To produce a good model, each indicator must have a high level of validity and reliability in forming the variable (outer model). Latan & Ghozali (2012) evaluated it using the values of convergent validity and discriminant validity. To build a structural model of community participation in village development, the relationship between exogenous variables, both directly and indirectly, is studied, namely work culture, leadership, the role of social media, public services, and socio-economic status. These variables are measured based on their constituent indicators as stated in the Table 3.

Table 3.

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Research questionnaire grid

Variable	Indicator	Code
Work Culture	People’s mindset	BDM1
	People’s attitude	BDM2
	Community work ethic	BDM3
Leadership	Cooperative	KPP1
	Proactive	KPP2
	Collaborative	KPP3
	Delegative	KPP4
The Role of Social Media	Information Facility	MDS1
	Aspiration Facility	MDS2
	Education facility	MDS3
Public service	Service efficiency	PLP1
	Service effectiveness	PLP2
	Service justice	PLP3
	Responsiveness	PLP4
Society participation	Donate funds	PMD1
	Donate goods	PMD2
	Donate energy	PMD3
	Contribute thoughts	PMD4
Socio-Economic Status	Income	SOE1
	Education	SOE2
	Work	SOE3
	Number of Family Dependents	SOE4

Validity test

Convergent Validity

The level of relationship between the variables and their constituent indicators is determined based on the convergent validity obtained from the estimation results of the PLS program. According to Ghozali (2014), if the value is more than 0.70 it is in the category of high validity. The estimation of the PLS program produces a convergent validity value as shown in the Table 4.

Based on the results of the first outer loading, there are several indicators that do not meet the convergent validity, namely community participation in the form of funds and education level and a number of family dependents. After the indicators were removed from the model and re-estimated, all indicators of each variable meet the convergent validity.

Table 4.

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First and Second Outer Loading

Variable	Indicator	Item	Loading Factor 1	Note	Loading Factor 2	Note
Work Culture	People’s mindset	BDM1	0.83	Valid	0.83	Valid
	People’s attitude	BDM2	0.87	Valid	0.87	Valid
	Community work ethic	BDM3	0.83	Valid	0.83	Valid
Leadership	Cooperative	KPP1	0.83	Valid	0.83	Valid
	Proactive	KPP2	0.87	Valid	0.87	Valid
	Collaborative	KPP3	0.89	Valid	0.89	Valid
	Delegative	KPP4	0.86	Valid	0.86	Valid
The Role of Social Media	Information Facility	MDS1	0.87	Valid	0.87	Valid
	Aspiration Facility	MDS2	0.92	Valid	0.92	Valid
	Education facility	MDS3	0.90	Valid	0.90	Valid
Public service	Service efficiency	PLP1	0.87	Valid	0.87	Valid
	Service effectiveness	PLP2	0.88	Valid	0.88	Valid
	Service justice	PLP3	0.89	Valid	0.89	Valid
	Responsiveness	PLP4	0.86	Valid	0.86	Valid
Society participation	Donate funds	PMD1	0.65	Invalid
	Donate goods	PMD2	0.70	Valid	0.72	Valid
	Donate energy	PMD3	0.79	Valid	0.82	Valid
	Contribute thoughts	PMD4	0.84	Valid	0.90	Valid
Socio-Economic Status	Income	SOE1	0.74	Valid	0.72	Valid
	Education	SOE2	0.69	Invalid	0.72	Valid
	Work	SOE3	0.76	Valid	0.74	Valid
	Number of Family Dependents	SOE4	0.20	Invalid

Discriminant Validity

The value of discriminant validity shows the difference in the level of correlation between the latent variable and other variables. It is said to be valid if the correlation level of the latent variable is greater than the correlation level of other variables (Latan & Ghozali 2012). PLS estimation of cross-loading results has a higher level of correlation between indicators and latent variables in one block than in other blocks so that all latent variables have good discriminant validity.

In addition to using the cross-loading value, the level of discrimination validity can be determined using the average variance extracted (AVE) for each latent variable. If the value is greater than 0.50, then the variable has good discriminant validity (Ghozali 2014; Kuswanto & Anderson 2021). The estimation results of the PLS program show the AVE values as listed in the Table 5.

According to the AVE values in Table 5, all latent variables have discriminant validity in the good category. This is also confirmed by the AVE square root value which is greater than the correlation value.

Table 5.

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Average Variance Extracted (AVE)

Variable	AVE	AVE square root
Community Work Culture	0.711	0.843
Leadership	0.747	0.864
Village Community Participation	0.666	0.816
Public service	0.763	0.873
The Role of Social Media	0.809	0.900
Socio-Economic Status	0.531	0.729

Evaluation of the Structural Model (Inner Model)

The model structure generated from the estimation of the PLS program can be evaluated based on the Coefficient of Determination (R²), Predictive Relevance (Q²) and Goodness of Fit (GoF).

Coefficient of Determination (R-Square) R ²

The coefficient of determination shows the model’s ability to explain the effect of exogenous variables on endogenous variables. Chin (1998) classifies the model as follows :a weak model if the R² coefficient is 0.19, a moderate model if R² is 0.33, and a strong model if R² is 0.67 (Ghozali 2014). The estimation results of the PLS program are obtained by the R² coefficient as shown in Table 6 below.

Based on the R² value as shown in Table 6, the models that are considered moderate in explaining the effect of exogenous variables on endogenous variables include: community culture model, village community participation model and public service model, while leadership model and socioeconomic status model are in the weak category. According to Ghozali (2014) in general, the coefficient of determination in cross-sectional data analysis is relatively small because each observation has a large variation, in contrast to time series data which generally produce a high coefficient of determination.

Table 6.

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R Square (R²)

Variable	AVE	R Square
Community Work Culture	0.71	0.33
Leadership	0.75	0.25
Village Community Participation	0.67	0.52
Public service	0.76	0.51
The Role of Social Media	0.91	-
Socio-Economic Status	0.53	0.15
Average	0.71	0.29

Q ² Predictive Relevance Test

The Predictive Relevance value describes the level of prediction generated by the model and its parameter estimates. If the value is less than 0, then the model is considered less relevant as a predictive tool and if the value is greater than 0, then the model is considered relevant as a predictive tool (Ghozali 2014). By entering the R² value of each model into the Q² equation, the Predictive Relevance value is obtained as follows:

$Q^{2} = 1 - ((1 - R_{1}^{2}) (1 - R_{2}^{2}) (1 - R_{3}^{2}) (1 - R_{4}^{2}) (1 - R_{5}^{2}))$

$Q^{2} = 1 - ((1 - 0.328) (1 - 0.251) (1 - 0.522) (1 - 0.505) (1 - 0.152))$

$Q^{2} = 0.899$

From these calculations, a Q² value of 0.899 is obtained, meaning that the resulting model has a good predictive relevance.

Evaluation of Goodness of Fit (GoF)

GoF shows the overall model quality as a predictive tool. The GoF value is obtained from the square root of the multiplication of the average communalities index value and the R² value. If the value ≥ 0.25, it indicates a low model quality, ≥ 0.36 – medium model quality and ≥ 0.36 – high model quality (Ghozali 2014; Hair et al. 2013). By entering the value of the average communalities index and the value of R² into the GoF equation, we receive the following values:

$G o F = \sqrt{\bar{Com} \times \bar{R^{2}}}$

$G o F = \sqrt{0.705 \times 0.293}$

$G o F = 0.454$

Based on these calculations, our GoF value equals to 0.454, so the overall model has a high quality as a predictive tool (Table 7).

Table 7.

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Hypothesis testing (Bootstraping)

Variable	Original Sample	Sample Mean	Standard Deviation	T Statistics	P Values
Community Culture → Village Community Participation	0.570	0.576	0.049	11.550	0.000
Community Culture → Public Service	0.149	0.150	0.042	3.518	0.000
Leadership → Village Community Participation	0.008	0.007	0.075	0.108	0.914
Leadership → Public Service	0.475	0.473	0.073	6.482	0.000
Public Service → Village Community Participation	0.097	0.097	0.067	1.465	0.144
The Role of Social Media → Community Culture	0.498	0.497	0.051	9.741	0.000
Social Media Roles → Leadership	0.501	0.504	0.059	8.430	0.000
Role of Social Media → Village Community Participation	0.046	0.044	0.070	0.648	0.517
Role of Social Media → Public Service	0.230	0.231	0.060	3.813	0.000
Role of Social Media → Socio-Economic Status	0.389	0.396	0.056	6.966	0.000
Socio-Economic Status → Community Culture	0.150	0.152	0.053	2.826	0.005
Socio-Economic Status → Village Community Participation	0.148	0.146	0.048	3.052	0.002

Interpretation

Community culture has a significant effect on community participation in village development, as shown by the value of t-statistic (11.258) > t-table (1.969) at 5 per cent. The path coefficient is positive equaling to 0.57, meaning that if the culture of the community increases by one unit, its participation in village development will increase by 0.57 units. Community work culture can be increased though improving the mindset, attitude, and work ethic to enhance their awareness to play an active role in village development.
Community culture has a significant effect on public services, as shown by t-statistics (3.823) > t-table (1.969) at 5 per cent. The path coefficient is positive equaling to 0.149, meaning that if the culture of the community increases by one unit, then the village government public services will increase by 0.149 units.
The path coefficient of the leadership impact on community participation in village development is positive equaling to 0.008, meaning that if the leadership of the village government increases by one unit, then community participation in village development will increase by 0.008 units. The village head’s leadership describes cooperative, proactive, collaborative, and delegative attitudes in running the village administration; the better the attitude is better, the more motivated community to participate in village development. However, the effect was not statistically significant at alpha 5 or 10 per cent with t-statistical values (0.110) < t-table (1.969).
The path coefficient of the impact of village government leadership on public services is positive equaling to 0.475, meaning that if the leadership of the village government increases by one unit, then public services will increase by 0.475 units. The effect is statistically significant at alpha 1 and 5 per cent with the value of t-statistics (6.511) > t-table (1,969).
The path coefficient of the impact of public services on community participation in village development is positive equaling to 0.097, meaning that if public services increase by one unit, then community participation in village development will increase by 0.097 units. The quality of public services is assessed on the basis of the level of efficiency, effectiveness, fairness, and responsiveness of village officials in providing services to the community so that if public services are of high quality, it will increasingly provide satisfaction to the community and increase their contribution to village development. However, this effect was not statistically significant at alpha 5 or 10 per cent with the value of t-statistics (1.482) < t-table (1.969).
The path coefficient of the impact of the role of social media on community culture is positive equaling to 0.498, meaning that if the role of social media increases by one unit, then the community culture will increase by 0.498 units. Social media functions as a means of information, aspirations, and education so that if the facility is getting better it will further facilitate the community in developing mindsets, attitudes, and work ethic as an illustration of a good community work culture. The effect was statistically significant at alpha 1 and 5 per cent with the value of t-statistics (10.232) > t-table (1.969).
The path coefficient of the impact of the role of social media on the leadership of the village government is positive equaling to 0.501, meaning that if the role of social media increases by one unit, the leadership of the village government will increase by 0.501 units. The effect is statistically significant at alpha 1 and 5 per cent with the value of t-statistics (8.818) > t-table (1.969).
The path coefficient of the impact of the role of social media on community participation in village development is positive equaling to 0.046, meaning that if the role of social media increases by one unit, then community participation in village development will increase by 0.046 units. However, the effect was not statistically significant at 5 or 10 per cent alpha with t-statistical value (0.631) < t-table (1.969).
The path coefficient of the impact of the role of social media on public services is positive equaling to 0.230, meaning that if the role of social media increases by one unit, then public services will increase by 0.230 units. The effect is statistically significant at alpha 1 and 5 per cent with the value of t-statistics (3.925) > t-table (1.969).
The path coefficient of the impact of the role of social media on the socio-economic status of the community is positive equaling to 0.389, meaning that if the role of social media increases by one unit, the socio-economic status of the community will increase by 0.389 units. The effect is statistically significant at alpha 1 and 5 per cent with the value of t-statistics (6.618) > t-table (1.969).
The path coefficient of the impact of the socio-economic status of the community on the community culture is positive equaling to 0.148, meaning that if the socio-economic status of the community increases by one unit, then the community culture will increase by 0.148 units. The socio-economic condition of the community describes the level of income, education, employment, and number of family dependents. Thus, if the socio-economic level of the community is getting better, it will further increase the mindset, attitude, and work ethic that is very much needed in village development. The effect is statistically significant at alpha 1 and 5 per cent with a value of t-statistics (2.954) > t-table (1.969).
The path coefficient of the impact of community socioeconomic status on community participation in village development is positive equaling to 0.150, meaning that if the community socio-economic status increases by one unit, then community participation in village development will increase by 0.150 units. The socio-economic condition of the community describes the level of income, education, employment, and number of family dependents. Thus, if the socio-economic level of the community is getting better, it will further increase public awareness to participate in village development. The effect is statistically significant at alpha 1 and 5 per cent with the value of t-statistics (3.020) > t-table (1.969).

The Figure 2 schematizes the above interpretation.

Figure 2.

Model of community participation in village development. Source: primary data processing, 2022

Impact of Community Culture on Community Participation in Village Development

Community culture is a view, attitude and human behavior towards issues that arise, for example, village development issues. This pattern of attitudes and behavior characterizes community participation in village development. This is reflected in the pattern of knowledge and understanding of the development, openness, responsiveness and skills to be applied in the form of participation in every development process. The findings in this study indicate that there is a significant relationship between community culture and community participation in village development. This indicates that the elements contained in community culture such as cooperation, and caring attitudes contribute to the implementation of the development process. The results of this study are strengthened by findings of Sukharwadi (2020), Manggala & Mustam (2017). Research shows that community culture has a significant impact on community participation in village development. The better the community culture of a, the more positive the community on village development. The attitude and culture of the community show its identity as an expression of the national spirit which will be realized in the form of participating in the development. A good culture will show the identity of good citizens and determine social actions that greatly contribute to realizing development. So, according to Naseri (2019), the social actions of the community cannot be separated from the identity that is formed based on the attitudes and culture. Community life that is built with a tradition of involving citizens in determining public policies will make it easier to regulate their participation in the development and cooperation between citizens will be more effective if people’s lives are based on cultural norms (Azfar et al. 2018). By participating in village development, the community will gain economic benefits and feel responsible for village development (Martini 2020). Likewise, the research results of Lumantow et al. (2017) explain that the Mapulus culture which consists of the culture of cooperation, mutual cooperation, and public interest shows strongly affects participation in village development. Other forms of culture, such as findings of Mustanir & Razak (2017) show that the Towani Tolotang culture which contains a set of values, norms, attitudes and beliefs, affects community participation in the development. The research results conducted by Nawawi et al. (2020) in Buru Regency-Maluku Province, show that the Kalesang culture which reflects the spirit of business, courage to think and the spirit to make changes has a positive impact on realizing community participation so that it becomes a common force to achieve prosperity for all village communities.

Impact of Socio-Economic Status on Community Participation in Village Development

Socio-economic status can be seen in work, education and income. The higher the level of welfare, the higher the level of participation in the development. The findings in this study indicate that the community socio-economic status, either directly or indirectly, has a significant effect on participation in village development. Indirectly, the socio-economic conditions of the community will shape the culture in social life. People who have a high socioeconomic status will show an objective and rational mindset to form a pattern or life behavior that reflects a good culture in social life. Thus, there will be encouragement from within the community to participate in village development. The study results are reinforced by findings of Uceng et al. (2019). This research states that people with a high incomes are able to meet their daily needs and will be active to participate and have time to participate in village development. improvements in the community socio-economic status in addition to stimulating development of new social classes will also increase the community intellectual potential to realize their rights and duties as citizens and their participation in making political decisions in government (Saei 2018). The increased public awareness of their rights and duties as citizens makes their participation more rational and meaningful in to bring out talents of economic activists in the community (Hafeznia 2021).

When viewed from the work perspective, this factor has a significant impact on community participation in village development. Most of the people of Jambi work in the agricultural sector. Community work determines the level of participation in the development because the estimated working time of the community varies according to their expertise and type of work. Research by Suroso et al. (2014) states that community activities to participate in village development are determined by work. People who work in agricultural areas have enough time compared to people who work in industrial areas. Working time in industrial areas is longer than working time in the agricultural sector.

Impact of Social Media on Community Participation in the Development

In line with the rapid development of special technologies in social media, it has made a high impact on people’s ability to obtain and absorb information. Akbar et al. (2019), Zahara (2018) explain the role of communication, that social media has an impact on community participation, as social media can create changes, grow and discover new attitudes and behavioral values to make someone more willing to participate. The role of social media can be a medium of information related to programs and performance of government officials, or play a role as an educational medium in enlightening people’s knowledge about the development. On the other hand, social media can play a role as a tool to channel community participation related to development activities. Research findings in Jambi Province show that social media does not directly affect community participation in village development. However, it has an indirect influence on the community cultural variables. In this case, the mass media plays a role in building the society culture through the information it produces. A higher role of social media in people’s lives will form a good culture to increase their concern for village development. Hendra (2019) in his research explains that social media has a role in developing progress and people’s mindsets, thus providing a better understanding of village development. Weiner et al. (2002) added that utilizing the internet will expand community participation in the development planning process. Planners will get valuable input from the community and at the same time train the community in planning development. With the existence of modern information and communication technology, the community will easily get access to the government services needed and can play an active role in creating quality services (Bourgon 2008).

Impact of Village Government Leadership on Community Participation in Village Development

Leadership is an attempt to influence others to be able to carry out the programs that have been planned. If the government leadership is good, then the community tends to participate in village development. The findings of Mohulaingo et al. (2022) state that transformative leadership has a significant influence on community participation in Pilohayanga village. A successful leader is a leader who tries to pay attention, invite, move, and give a positive impulse through the power he gains over his subordinates.

Findings of our study indicate that leadership of the village head hardly has any direct or indirect impact on community participation in village development. Leadership of the village head has a direct impact on public services only. This condition shows that leadership of the village head is directly perceived only by the staff or employees of the village apparatus rather than village community. This condition also indicates that leadership failed to contribute to the increase in community participation in rural development. This is different from the findings of Rahmannuddin & Sumardjo (2018) that leadership has a positive effect on community participation in village development. The results of Horlings et al. (2018) also confirm that effective leadership will reflect togetherness and the spirit of collaboration to get a better performance. Leadership of a democratic village head will create an open, participatory, accountable and responsive government to provide services to the community (Shokheh et al. 2021). Thus, according to Rahmawati (2016), encouragement is needed to raise public awareness to participate even in case of a mobilization pattern where participation is carried out on the basis of encouragement and influence from others.

Impact of Public Services on Community Participation in Village Development

Good quality public services are what a community needs to participate in every development movement in the village. Public services are basically present to answer the unrest experienced by the community due to the services provided by government officials. Quality public services will make it easier for the community to participate and realize their rights. Therefore, good management will directly affect the quality of service. Findings of this study indicate that public services provided to the community do not encourage their participation in village development. This is understandable because the services provided by the village government to the community are still very minimal, so these services have little effect on community participation in village development. Therefore, it is necessary to socialize with the community about various interests that must be fulfilled and supported by good services. As findings of Ibrahim et al. (2020) explain that if services are managed well, it will increase community participation in village development. The same thing was also revealed by Baharuddin (2019) in his research in Sirongo Folaraha village, if the administrative services provided by the village apparatus to the community are good, it will increase their participation in the development. Public officials who are more responsive to their superiors than to the people they serve will reduce the quality of their services (McCourt 2013). Therefore, awareness of public officials is needed to work professionally by making the community partners realize quality services (Tuurnas 2015). A good relationship between public officials and community will create loyalty, motivation, hope, and commitment to development goals (Lawton & Doig 2006). Community involvement in the process of providing public services will improve public sector performance in the future (Bourgon 2008). Public services will be better if service motivation is based on the desire to contribute to the interests of the community (Vandenabeele et al. 2018) and is based on the desire to do good to the community (Horton 2008).

Conclusion and recommendation

Community participation in village development is manifested in material (money and goods) and non-material (thoughts and energy) forms. The analysis results show that the level of community participation in Jambi Province in village development is influenced by internal community factors, such as socio-economic status and culture of the community, while community external factors, such as the role of mass media, village head leadership and public services hardly have any significant influence. Community culture variables mediate social media variables and socioeconomic status in determining community participation. Thus, although the mass media variable does not have a direct influence, it has an indirect impact through community culture on participation in village development. This condition shows that the role of mass media makes a positive contribution to the formation of community culture to encourage awareness to participate in village development.

Based on the analysis results, it is recommended that the government optimize the role of mass media as a medium of information, education and services to strengthen community culture. The government must also provide feedback on the community participation in the development making it easier for the community to improve their socio-economic status in order to create a good culture of social life. It is necessary to socialize with the public through various forms of services and the ease of accessing them so that people can feel the role and benefits of these services. To strengthen these findings, it is recommended for further researchers to examine more deeply the impact of village government performance on community welfare.

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Information about the authors

Kuswanto – Lecturer and Researcher at Jambi University, Economic Education Study Program, Jambi, 36122, Indonesia. Email: kuswanto.fkip@unja.ac.id

Irzal Anderson – Lecturer and Researcher at Jambi University, Pancasila and Citizenship Education Study Program, Jambi, 36122, Indonesia. Email: irzal.anderson@unja.ac.id

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Literature Review

Community Participation in the Development

Indicators of Community Participation in the Development

Factors Affecting Community Participation in the Development

Role of Social Media in the Development

Community Work Culture

Socio-Economic Status of Society

Public service

Village Government Leadership

Research Method

Results and Discussion

Evaluation of the Measurement Model (Outer Model)

Validity test

Convergent Validity

Discriminant Validity

Evaluation of the Structural Model (Inner Model)

Coefficient of Determination (R-Square) R 2

Q 2 Predictive Relevance Test

Evaluation of Goodness of Fit (GoF)

Interpretation

Impact of Community Culture on Community Participation in Village Development

Impact of Socio-Economic Status on Community Participation in Village Development

Impact of Social Media on Community Participation in the Development

Impact of Village Government Leadership on Community Participation in Village Development

Impact of Public Services on Community Participation in Village Development

Conclusion and recommendation

References

Other sources of information

Information about the authors

Coefficient of Determination (R-Square) R ²

Q ² Predictive Relevance Test